THE COMPLEX SENTENCE - A CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

1. The Functional Criterion of Classification

2. The Structural Criterion of Classification

3. Key Concepts

As previously shown, the complex sentence is made up of at least one main clause and a dependent or a subordinate one. Unlike in the case of compound sentences - which are based on coordination - the complex sentence relies heavily on the process of subordination. This is the reason why a classification of subordinate clauses should be in order.

Classifying dependent clauses will employ two main criteria:

The FUNCTIONAL one - which, as the name suggests it, takes into consideration the syntactic function of the respective clause.

From the functional point of view, subordinates can be classified into:

subject clauses

Whoever did that was a genius.

It seems that he is not your friend.

object  clauses - this class includes direct objects, indirect objects and prepositional objects:

(3) I believe that he is not here. (Direct Object)

(Cred ca nu este acolo.)

(4)I am afraid that he won't come (Prepositional Object)

(Mi-e teama ca nu o sa vina.)

(5) I gave this to whomever wanted it. (Indirect Object)

(Am dat asta cui a vrut-o.)

At this point we need to provide some further explanation. An OBJECT refers to only those items (phrases, sentences) required by the verb (or adjective). They have the feature [+ obligatory] and, even on the rare occasions when they can be omitted, they are still presupposed by the speaker.

For instance, the verb give is always accompanied in our mind by its obligatory complements (direct and indirect objects):

(6) He gave the book to her.

(I-a dat cartea.)

These objects are presupposed by us whenever we think of this verb. We do not pressupose however something like an adverbial item, such as the manner adverbials with with pleasure/willingly.

(7) He willingly gave the book to her.

(I-a dat cartea de buna voie.)

In (7) we can identify the verb's obligatory objects (the book, to her) and one extra-item, an additional one, which is the adverbial willingly. These non-obligatory items are called adjuncts.

A second observation, related to example (4), has to do with why we consider the subordinate that he won't come to be a prepositional object. The explanation is simple: this subordinate can be easily replaced by a phrase preceded by a preposition, and this preposition is in fact required and presupposed as accompanying the adjective afraid:

a. I am afraid of his not coming/of this fact.

(Mi-e teama ca n-o sa vina.)

b. I am afraid that he won't come.

(Mi-e teama ca n-o sa vina.)

We believe that the subordinating conjunction THAT has replaced the preposition, since English no longer allows for a conjunction and a preposition to be put together.

(9) *I am afraid of that he won't come.

We presuppose that the preposition of has been deleted, but its effect remains even after its wipe-out. That is why we choose to call prepositional object the that-clause following the adjective afraid.

So far we have discussed subject clauses and object clauses. The third class is made up of

(c) adjuncts - those clauses (or phrases) whose presence is not obligatorily required by a verb or an adjective. They normally have an adverbial (circumstancial) interpretation:

(10)Before she left the room she closed all the windows.

(Inainte sa plece din camera, a inchis toate ferestrele.)

(11) If you don't marry me, I'll die.

(Daca nu te insori cu mine, am sa mor.)

(d) attributes or modifiers - those clause (or phrases) that characterize nominal phrases:

(12) The woman who was wearing red was sitting next to him on the platform.

(Femeia in rosu statea linga el pe peron.)

(13)The red-wearing woman was sitting next to him on the platform.

(Femeia in rosu statea linga el pe peron.)

Activity 1

Which of the following underlined items are obligatory and which are not

1.She came to him of her own will. 2. I cannot tell you what I heard about you. 3. Susan disappeared without saying a word.  She's aware of his rage and that he might punish her. 5. She told whomever wanted to listen about her problems at home. 6. After I told her the story, she looked at me sadly.

Activity 2

Read the following and identify the subordinate clauses, stating their function

1.He took an intelligent interest in her, which, though it was largely politeness, was a novelty to Mitzi. 2. When Mitzi bought the house in Brook Green she offered Austin the best rooms, but he declined, as he had just found the little Bayswater which he inhabited still. 3. At this time we know that we are mortal beings with but a short span of days and that our end as our beginning belongs to God. Sometimes she thought that her own failure to marry Mathew was actually the cause of Austin's marrying Dorina. 5. You must know that if you do not meet it right here at home, you are choosing exile from what you are fortunate enough to call your homeland. 6. You suggestion that we should, at our age, remove our home yet again seems to us merely thoughtless.

(Iris Murdoch - An Accidental Man)

The second criterion we employ to differentiate between various subordinate clauses is the STRUCTURAL one. We classify dependent clauses acording to what introductory element they exhibit:

complement clauses - mainly those clauses introduced by THAT, WHETHER, FOR, etc.

(14) I knew that he liked me.

(Stiam ca ma simpatizeaza.)

(15) I didn't know whether he would visit me in jail.

(N-am stiut daca o sa ma viziteze la inchisoare.)

(16) It is advisable for him to leave.

(E de dorit sa plece.)

(17) I wanted to leave immediately.

(Am vrut sa plec imediat.)

wh-complements - those clauses introduced by a wh-word/phrase

These include:

indirect questions

(18) I didn't know who had killed him.

(Nu stiam cine l-a ucis.)

relative clauses

(14) I was afraid of what he might say.

(Mi-era groaza de ce ar putea spune.)

cleft sentences

(15) It is John who did it.

(John este cel care a facut asta.)

pseudo-cleft sentences

(16) a. Who did it was John.

(Cel care a facut asta este John.)

b. Where he went is London.

(Locul in care s-a dus este Londra.)

(c) adverbial clauses - those clauses subordinated by such conjunctions as: although, if, before, etc.

Unlike complement clauses, these ones are introduced by subordinating conjunctions with a distinct semantical change.

Compare, for instance, the following two clauses:

(17) She told me that I was a fool.

(Mi-a spus ca sint un prost.)

(18) She told me this before she left.

(Mi-a spus aceasta inainte sa plece.)

In (17) the meaning of the subordinate clause is imposed by the verb in the main clause. The subordinating conjunction that is abstract in meaning. In (18), however, the meaning of the subordinate (that of a time adverbial clause) is offered and imposed by the subordinating conjunction not by the main clause verb.

Activity 3

Read the text below and try to identify subordinate clauses from a structural point of view:

My dearest son,

Your father has suggested that I should write to you so that you can be sure that he and I are of one mind in this matter. I am not very good at this sort of letter and I did not earlier write because the discussion was between yourself and your father, you understand. Dear Ludwig, I cannot express to you how much we miss you. To say that I think of my dear son every day says little. I think of him every minute and remember what times in our day and night are his bed-time and his getting-up-times, and every night and indeed always in my thoughts I pray for him that he may be protected and guided to do the right. ( . ) Even leaving aside the concern which I know you have for our feelings, surely you cannot sincerely believe, at your young age, that you will never want to set foot in the US in your life again. We so much fear that you will suddenly decide to come later when it will all have such terrible consequences.

(Iris Murdoch - An Accidental Man)

Key Concepts

We classify subordinate clauses according to their function into subjects, objects (which are always obligatorily required by a verb or adjective), adjuncts and attributes (or modifiers, because they modify, offer a plus of meaning to the nominal they accompany).

According to a structural criterion, which regards the introductory conjunction / pronoun of the subordinate, these clauses can be complements, wh-complements, adverbials (they normally correspond to he Romanian complement circumstantial).

Activity 4   (Optional Exercises

Translate the following, making use of the information on subordinate clauses supplied by this section :

Cu cateva luni inaintea razboiului Anton Modan nu stia ca de mult nu mai era om indraznet, atat de demult incat in ziua cand afla nici macar nu se mai trudi cu gandul sa se intoarca inapoi si sa-si dea seama de cand.

Nevasta secera in tacere, fara sa-si ridice spinare, si din miscarile ei se putea intelege ca e stapana pe un gand care o tinea mereu incordata si indarjita. Anton se uita la ea si se intreba, ce o fi avand. Tot timpul diminetii o vazuse ca tace.

Cand Anton lasa secerea unii se uitara la soare sa-si dea seama daca mai e mult pana la pranz. ( . ) "Ma, dar devreme mai mananca Anton asta!" gandira ei. Altii, insa, care ii vazusera pe Anton si nevasta-sa cum stateau cu secerile in mana si se uitau unul la altul, isi spusesera ca Anton, dupa ce ca are grau putin, nici pe ala nu-l secera ca lumea.

O zbughi inapoi, dar dupa ce alerga vreo douazeci de pasi, simtind ca nu s-a luat nimeni dupa el, se opri si se uita sa vada ce isprava a facut.

Toata lumea intelesese ca, de fapt, amenintarea aceasta semana mai mult cu o flacara care ramane o clipa in aer, desi paiele de dedesubt sunt cenusa, decat cu amenintare adevarata. Fiindca un on indraznet nu se clatina pe drum, sau daca se clatina se intoarce indarat si nu mai ameninta, fiindca si sa inghiti nu e putin, si pentru asta iti trebuie curaj.

(Marin Preda - Indrazneala)