RELATIVE CLAUSES

1.Relative Clauses and Other Kinds of Relatives

2.The Coreference Condition

3.The Classification of Relative Clauses

6.Restrictions Imposed On the Relative Clause by the Determiner of the 7.Antecedent

8.Relative Clause Introducers

9.Pied Piping and Preposition Stranding

10.Key Concepts

Relative Clauses and Other Kinds of Relatives

By relative clauses we understand:

a) all the wh-complements mentioned in the previous section.

b) other kinds of relative clauses such as

that relatives (those relative clauses introduced by THAT)

This is a gift that you fully deserve.

(Acesta este un cadou pe care il meriti pe deplin.)

participial relatives

The fellow wearing those odd clothes is Jane's husband.

(Barbatul in haine ciudate este sotul lui Jane.)

infinitival relatives

I need some tools with which to fix the car.

(Am nevoie de unelte cu care sa repar masina.)

We will mainly focus on wh-complements leaving aside other kinds of relatives and cleft sentences.

2. The Coreference Condition - a discussion of attributive relatives

As we shall see, relative clauses can have more than one syntactical function. The best known function, normally associated with relative clauses is that of Attribute. We shall first discuss relative clauses functioning as attributes in order to establish the mechanism that grants their existence.

These relative clauses represent a type of subordination that is based on the fact the the main clause and the subordinate clause share a nominal constituent. Consider the following:

I met a woman. John loves that woman.

By combining these two clauses, we obtain

I met a woman whom John loves.

(Am cunoscut o femeie pe care o iubeste John.)

What has happened? The common element woman appears in the main clause only and is resumed by the relative pronoun introducing the second clause. We presuppose that the phrase the woman in the second clause under (4) has been transformed into a relative constituent (it has been relativized) and moved at the beginning of the clause to link it to the previous one. The place where the phrase the woman used to stand has remained empty, like a gap:

I met a woman whom John loves _____.

Since  the phrase a woman and the relative pronoun whom under (6) refer to the same object, we can co-index them (that is we place the same index under each of them):

I met a woman_i whom_i John loves _____.

But how do we mark the fact that the verb loves used to have a direct object right after it that has been moved up front?

We place the same index under the letter t (that stands for trace):

I met a woman_i whom_i John loves t_i .

This way, we can clearly indicate that the coreference condition that stipulated the necessity of a shared nominal for the main clause and the relative attributive clause has been observed.

The relative pronoun preserves its function of a direct object within the relative subordinate. Let us supply an example where the relative pronoun functions as a prepositional object:

I met a woman. John offered flowers to that woman.

The common element woman is present, so the coreference condition (that the two clauses should have coreferring elements) is observed. The resulting structure can have two forms:

a. I met a woman_i who_i John had offered flowers to t_i

b. I met a woman_i to whom_i John had offered flowers t_i

In point of terminology, we call the nominal that the relative clause refers to the antecedent of the relative clause. The element that has been moved in front position and transformed into a relative pronoun is called the relativized constituent.

The mechanism that allows for the appearance of relative attributive clauses is movement: the movement of the relativized constituent in initial position, by leaving behind a trace.

Activity 1

Combine the following sentences so as to get relative attributive clauses ( some of the sentences can be combined in two ways):

1.She came to London. I went to London, too. 2. John told his friend a story about the king. The king was just passing by. 3. They met those students. None of the students agreed with them. 4. I bought Jim a book. He liked that book.  I introduced him to Jim. He told Jim everything about his plans. 6. Susan wants to meet Jane. She doesn't know anything about Jane. 7. I had a book. I lost the book's cover. 8. This is my husband. I am my husband's wife. 9. The students like their teacher. Any of the students would answer to questions. 10. The students like their teacher. All of them would answer their teacher's questions.

Activity 2

Write a sentence as similar as possible to the given one. Use the word in capitals without changing it:

Whose is the car which is blocking the street? WHOM

This is the town in which Charles Dickens was buried. WHERE

It was silly of him to tell her the secret. WHICH

He's the author who received the prize. WHO

These are people about whom we cannot tell much. WHO

That couple had their child abducted by terrorists. WHOSE

It was such a pity that you couldn't join the party. WHICH

To whom are you writing this letter? WHO

This is the guy that they first met in Monte Carlo. WHOM

These are the tulips that were awarded the big prize. TO

A lot of tourists went on a trip to Delphi; most of them were from England. WHOM

3. The Classification of Relative Clauses

According to the criterion of form, relative clauses are divided into

dependent relative clauses (clauses that have an overt antecedent, i.e. whose main clause contains a nominal that can be co-indexed with the introducing relative pronoun)

(11)This is the man_i whom_i I love.

(Acesta este barbatul pe care il iubesc.)

Under (11) the relative subordinate finds its antecedent in the main clause: the phrase the man.

independent relative clauses or Free Relative Clauses (those clauses which lack an overt antecedent, that do not have an expressed antecedent in the main clause)

Who breaks pays.

(Cine strica plateste.)

Whoever swims in sin shall swim sorrow.

(Cine pacatuieste mult va suferi.)

Example (12) is an instance of a relative clause (introduced by a wh-element) whose antecedent has been deleted, is no longer overtly expressed, unlike in the case of (14), where we are looking at a more obsolete (i.e. far-fetched) form of the same sentence:

He_i who_i breaks pays.

(Cel care strica plateste.)

So, in a manner of speaking, we can assume that Independent or Free Relative Clauses must have originated from dependent ones; only their antecedent is no longer expressed, it is covert. Unlike their sisters, these relatives, cannot function as attributes, they currently fulfill the function of subjects or objects, as follows:

Subject Free Relative Clause

Whoever touches pitch shall be defiled.

(Cine se atinge de smoala va fi intinat.)

Direct Object

I would like to know what you need.

(As dori sa stiu ce vrei.)

Indirect Object (the only clauses that can have this function in fact)

He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile.

(Oferea un zimbet cuceritor oricui venea la usa lui.)

Prepositional Object

You should vote for whichever candidate you think best.

(Trebuie sa votezi cu candidatul pe care il consideri cel mai potrivit.)

Predicative

This was what she intended.

(Asta era ceea ce voise ea.)

Adverbial

Go wherever you want.

(Du-te unde poftesti.)

The second criterion that further classifies relative clauses has to do with meaning and is restricted to dependent relatives only. They can be thus divided into:

defining or restrictive relative clauses (those dependent relative clauses that identify an antecedent; they offer crucial information about this antecedent, they define it).

The man who came to woo me was a god.

(Cel care a venit sa ma peteasca era un zeu.)

(Only that particular man that was my suitor looked like a god)

non-defining or non-restrictive or appositive relative clauses (those dependent relative clauses that do not offer crucial information about the antecedent. They only provide supplementary information about it.)

Mercury, who is the god of commerce, is my favourite god.

(Mercur, care este zeul negotului, este zeul meu favorit.)

(Mercury, who incidentally is the god of commerce, is my favourite god)

The function of non-restrictive relative clauses is that of Appositive attributes. Their meaning is also reinforced by ortography, and by the intonation the speaker uses in uttering the whole sentence.

In conclusion, a diagram would sum up the types of relative clauses discussed:

Activity 3

Identify the relative clauses stating their type in the sentences below

4 Restrictions Imposed On The Relative Clause by the Determiner of the Antecedent

When the antecedent has no determiner, it can only be followed by a non-defining relative clause (an apposition):

Freddie Mercury, who died a few years ago, composed The Bohemian Rhapsody.

(Freddie Mercury, care a murit acum citiva ani, a compus The Bohemian Rhapsody.)

When combined with a restrictive relative clause, the proper name is recategorized into a common name and receives its own determiner (the, a, etc.):

The Freddie Mercury I knew was a rock-star.

(Freddie Mercury pe care-l cunosteam eu era o vedeta rock.)

I know a Freddie Mercury who gives piano lessons.

(Cunosc un Freddie Mercury care da lectii de pian.)

First and second person pronouns do not normally take restrictive relative clauses. They can be followed only by non-restrictive ones (appositions):

I, who am your son, can see your shortcomings only too well.

(Eu, care-ti sint fiu, iti vad prea bine defectele.)

Anybody else would have done something except myself, who am not a woman, but a peevish, ill-tempered, dried-up old maid.

(Oricine ar fi actionat, numai eu nu, care nu sint o femeie, ci o fata batrina morocanoasa, iritabila si uscata.)

They come to me, who neither work nor am anxious.

(Ei apeleaza la mine, care nici nu muncesc si nici nu sint ingrijorat.)

Third person pronouns however do accept restrictive relative clauses:

He who laughs last laughs best (archaic).

(Cine ride la urma ride mai bine.)

Activity 4

Translate the following, paying attention to the restriction imposed by antecedent determiners on relative clauses

5 Relative Clause Introducers

Relative clause introducers are usually placed at the beginning of the relative clause. In literary English they may sometimes be found later in the sentence:

after a present participle

. saying which he left the room

( . care lucruri fiind spuse, parasi camera.)

after an infinitive

The African queen issued forth upon the Lake to gain which they had run such dangers and undergone such toils.

(Regina africana se napusti spre lac sa redobindeasca cele pentru care trecusera prin atitea pericole si avusesera parte de atita truda.)

As the object of a preposition and after than:

He consulted his watch at 10-minute intervals, in spite of which the service finished late.

(Se uita la ceas din zece in zece minute, si cu toate acestea slujba s-a terminat tirziu.)

He was a railway fanatic, than whom few more can be more crashing.

(Era un fanatic al mersului cu trenul, si putini oameni il intreceau la asta.)

Sometimes the preposition can have partitive value:

He was prone to an inevitable series of moods, each of which has evolved its own system of harmony.

(Era inclinat spre stari schimbatoare, si fiecare din aceste stari isi dobindise propriul sistem de armonie.)

The compositions of Cardan, some of the last notes of whose harp he heard, were now in his possession.

(Compozitiile lui Cardan, ale caror ultime note de harpa le auzise, erau acum in posesia lui.)

Aside from these marginal examples, relative clause introducers retain their clause initial position. We shall briefly have a look at the most important ones.

1. Relative Pronouns

Who [+human] with its case forms whom [+human] and whose [± human] :

a. The woman who came to see my painting was the Queen itself.

(Femeia care a venit saa imi vada tabloul era Regina insasi.)

b. The woman to whom you showed the painting was the Queen.

(Femeia careia i-ai aratat tabloul era Regina.)

c. The woman whose painting I sold was very young.

(Femeia al carui tablou l-am vindut era foarte tinara.)

d. The painting whose buyer she was looked marvelous.

(Tabloul al carui cumparator era arata minunat.)

Whose appears as the appropriate genitive form for both [+human] and [-human] objects, as can be seen in (36d). The genitive form with which is still in use, too, but it is typical of the formal, literary style:

a. The book whose cover I lost was very expensive.

(Cartea a carei coperta am pierdut-o era foarte scumpa.)

b. The book the cover of which I lost was very expensive.

(Cartea a carei coperta am pierdut-o era foarte scumpa.)

(37b) is an example of relative clause introduced by a genitival pronoun where there is a form of inversion imposed by the presence of the genitive form of which. There are situations when inversion is not obligatory, but these ones are even more infrequent than those illustrated under (37b):

. as if she were being gradually cornered by a cruelty of which he was the almost unconscious agent.

(Iris Murdoch, An Accidental Man)

( . de parca era incet-incet incoltita de o cruzime al carei agent aproape inconstient era el.)

Which [-human]

The story which he claimed to have told was too fantastic for my taste.

(Povestea pe care pretindea ca a spus-o era prea fantastica pentru gustul meu.)

There are a few exceptions when which can acquire the feature [+human]:

When which has a partitive value:

Which of the two men is nicer?

(Care dintre ei este mai dragut?)

However in rhetorical question who is still preferred:

Who of us will stain his hands with murder?

(Cine dintre noi isi va minji miinile cu o crima?)

with archaic value:

Our Father, which art in Heaven .

(Tatal nostru carele esti in ceruri . )

When a personal denotation refers not to an individual, but to a type or a function

a. Shaw is commonly regarded more as a funny man than as the revolutionary which at bottom he is.

(Shaw este in general privit mai degraba ca un tip hazliu decit ca revolutionarul care este in esenta.)

b. Freud is the analyst which we must enjoy.

(Freud este psihanalistul pe care trebuie sa-l citim)

c. He is not the man which he used to be.

(Nu mai este omul care era odata.)

When its genitive form is used to give a very formal tone to the passage (but this is very infrequent):

Livia had just been delivered of twin boys, of which, by the way, Sejanus seems to have been the father.

(Livia tocmai nascuse doi baieti gemeni, al caror tata se pare ca era Sejanus.)

Both who and which are used for:

collective nouns

a. This was a tribe who moved from the Baltic Sea.

(Acesta era un trib care venise de la Marea Baltica.)

b. . Asiatic tribes and American tribes which resemble each other.

( . triburile asiatice si amer-indiene care seamana intre ele.)

states, animals, ships (that can be personified)

a. . Italy, which entered the war in May 1915 .

( . Italia care a intrat in razboi in mai 1915 . )

b. . France, whom it concerned most closely, did however take certain precautions .

( . Franta, pe care o privea direct, si-a luat totusi niste precautii . )

what - can normally introduce only free relative clauses:

I didn't know what they wanted.

(Nu stiam ce vor.)

The rare occasions when what functions as an introducer of restrictive relative clauses, it is

a) archaic

It is rich what gets the peaches,

It is poor what gets the punches.

(Cei bogati primesc onoruri, cei saraci primesc ponoase.)

b) dialectal

a. . the bloke what signs our books .

(tipul care ne semneaza cartile)

b. One can't expect foreigners to 'ave the same ideas what we 'ave.

(one cannot expect foreigners to have the same ideas that we have)

(Nu poti sa te astepti ca strainii sa aiba ce idei avem noi.)

2 Relative Adverbs: when, where, while, why, how, etc.

When they introduce restrictive relative clauses, their antecedents are nouns expressing places, time, reason, etc. and can be replaced by prepositional phrases with adverbial function:

a. Poland is the place where Christine was born.

(Polonia este locul in care s-a nascut Christine.)

b. Poland is the place in which Christine was born.

(Polonia este locul in care s-a nascut Christine.)

a. Ten o'clock is the time when they have lunch.

(Ora zece este momentul cind ei iau prinzul.)

b. Ten o'clock is the time at which they have lunch.

(Ora zece este momentul cind ei iau prinzul.)

When they introduce free relative clauses, no antecedents are required:

a. He went where he had been before.

(S-a dus unde mai fusese.)

b.They left when they decided it was proper to.

(Au plecat cind s-a hotarat ca este potrivit.)

There are cases when these adverbs can appear in their older forms (in archaic passages):

a. The place whither he goes is unknown.

(Locul catre care merge este necunoscut.)

b. They returned to the land whence they had come.

(S-au intors in tara din care venisera.)

c. A system where by a new discovery will arise.

(Un sistem prin care va aparea o noua descoperire)

d. A dark forrest wherein dangers lurk.

(O padure intunecata in care ne pandesc primejdiile.)

e. This is the place wherefrom they came.

(Acesta este locul din care au venit.)

3. Relative THAT

Relative THAT normally appears as the introducer of restrictive relative clauses:

This is the book that pleased her most.

(Aceasta este cartea care o incinta cel mai mult.)

It is invariable, never preceded by prepositions and requires an antecedent with the exception of archaic idiomatic contents:

(54) Handsome is that handsome does.

(Only the person that behaves in a handsome way can be considered handsome).

Moreover, the relative introducer THAT - unlike its pair that introduces complement that-clauses - can have almost any syntactic function within the relative clause:

Subject

Did you see the letter [that came today?]

(Ai vazut scrisoarea care a sosit azi?)

Direct Object

Did you get the books [that I sent you?]

(Ai primit cartile pe care ti le-am trimis?)

Prepositional Object

That is the man [that I was talking about.]

(Acesta este cel despre care vorbeam.)

Predicative

He is not the man [that he was.]

(Nu este omul care era odinioara.)

Adverbial

Tuesday was the day [that he left.]

(Ziua in care a plecat a fost o marti.)

When do we prefer to use THAT instead of WHICH/WHO?

When the antecedent is a compound nominal that refers to a human and a thing:

The children were the parcels that filled the car.

(Copiii erau pachetele ce umpleau masina.)

With a superlative antecedent

She is the prettiest girl that I have ever seen.

(Este fata cea mai frumoasa pe care am vazut-o vreodata.)

With an antecedent preceded by determiners such as: all, every, any, not any, much, little:

That ugly little house was all the home that I have ever had.

(Casuta aceea urita era singurul camin pe care l-am avut vreodata.)

When the rule of euphony must be observed

(63)a. Who that knew her would help loving her?

(Cine dintre cei care o cunosteau se puteau impiedica sa o iubeasca?)

b.* Who who knew her could help loving her?

4. Other relative introducers

There are of course other relative clauses introducers, but they are used very infrequently: as, but

in standard language

(64)a. Honest man as he was, it went against the grain with him to step into his shoes.

(Cinstit cum era, era contrar naturii sale sa il urmeze.)

b. I'll get you such things as you may want.

(O sa iti dau acele lucruri pe care le doresti.)

c. This is the same one that/as you had before.

(Este la fel cu cel pe care l-ai avut.)

in dialect

a. Uncle George, him as was in China .

(Uncle George, who had been in China . )

(Unchiul George, care fusese in China . )

b. There's not many as'll say that.

(There aren't many who will say that)

(Nu-s multi care sa spuie asta . )

archaic use

a. There is no man but feels pity for starving children. (There isn't a man who doesn't feel pity . )

(Nu e om care sa nu simta mila fata de copiii care mor de foame)

b. There is no one of us but wishes to help you.

(Nu este nimeni dintre noi care sa nu vrea sa te ajute.)

c. I never had a slice of bread

Particularly long and wide

But feel upon the sandy floor,

And always on the buttered side.

(Niciodata nu s-a intimplat, cind am avut o bucata de piine maricica, sa nu imi cada pe podeaua murdara, si intotdeauna pe partea unsa cu unt.)

Sometimes in colloquial or dialectal English, the relative clause introducer is omitted:

a. It's the dry weather does it.

(It's the dry weather that is to blame.)

b. It was me made her think that was the best thing to do.

(It was me who made her think . )

This phenomenon is usually met with cleft relative clauses such as those under (67).

This remark brings us to another important question to ask: When can we delete relative clause introducers? The answer to this question is rather straight: relative introducers can be deleted whenever THAT can be used as an alternative to the respective relative introducer.

For instance in

(68) The man whom John met lives in Boston.

(Omul pe care l-a intilnit John locuieste in Boston)

The relative pronoun whom can indeed be replaced by that:

(69) The man that John met lives in Boston.

(Omul pe care l-a intilnit John locuieste in Boston)

This means that both whom and that can be deleted without the sentence losing its grammaticality:

(70) The man John met lives in Boston.

Omul pe care l-a intilnit John locuieste in Boston)

Note that deletion is impossible in

(71) The man whom John spoke to is an idiot.

(Cel cu care vorbeste John este un idiot.)

since a replacement of the relative phrase with that cannot be performed in view of the fact that the relative introducer that cannot preceded by preposition (see subsection 3):

(72)a. * The man to that John spoke is an idiot.

b.*The man John spoke to is an idiot.

When the preposition appears at the end of the clause, the replacement is allowed and deletion is indeed an option:

a. The man who John spoke to is a genius.

(Cel cu care vorbeste John este un geniu.)

b. The man that John spoke to is a genius.

(Cel cu care vorbeste John este un geniu.)

c. The man John spoke to is a genius.

(Cel cu care vorbeste John este un geniu.)

Activity 5

Analyse the function of the relative clause and of the relative pronoun that introduces it

She was a poor housewife, but a passionate knitter, the products of whose nimble fingers were worn by Stollfus. 2. It is therefore not surprising that the theology upon which the Reformation was founded should be due to a man whose sense of sin was abnormal. 3. He had entertained hopes of being admitted to a sight of the young ladies, of whose beauty he had heard so much. 4. He thought how like her her expression was then to what it had been the moment when she looked round at the doctor. He is also handsome, which a young man ought likewise to be. 6. And that money, which will not be yours, until your mother's decease, is all that you may ever be entitled to. 7. And yet, you should go to the place where the river is, to where the rich and powerful are. 8. I cannot see him whenever he pleases. 9. It was family pride and filial pride, for he is very proud of what his father was. 10. One evening of each week was set aside for the reception of whosoever chose to visit him. 11. This law was that which the senator thought of as his legislative masterpiece. 12. Only three were aware of what was undoubtedly known there. 13. These people never want to talk about what you want to talk about. 14. He flunked whatever students he disliked. 1 They listened to what he had to say.

Activity 6

Comment upon the grammaticality of the following

a) The man who(m)/*which/that/ we saw was nice. b) The book *who(m)/which/that/ I read last night surprised me. c) The woman who/*whom/*which/that/ came to dinner was very late. d) The book*whom/which/that/* deals with this problem is very good. e) The man for whom/*who/*which/*that/* we are looking is not here. f) The man who(m) I *which/that/ we are looking for is not here. g) The book for *whom/which/*that/* we are looking is in my bag. h) The book *who(m)/which/that/ we are looking for is in my bag.

Activity 7

Read the following and notice the literary effect caused by the phenomenon of recursiveness (repeated embeddings of sentences that become relative clauses) in the passage; try to translate the Romanian text using the same technique.

This is the horse that kicked the policeman, that I saw trying to clear away the crowd that had collected to watch the fight that the short man had started.

(Iris Murdoch, The Accidental Man)

"Guturaiul". Cumnatul meu avea, pe linie paterna, un var primar, al carui unchi pe linie materna avea un socru, al carui bunic pe linie paterna se-nsurase in a doua casatorie cu o tanara bastinasa, al carei frate intalnise intr-una din calatoriile sale o fata de care se indragostise si cu care a avut un fiu, care s-a casatorit cu o farmacista curajoasa, care nu era altceva decat nepoata unui subofiter de marina din marina britanica si al carui tata adoptiv avea o matusa care vorbea curgator spaniola si care era, poate, una din nepoatele unui inginer, mort de tanar, nepot la randul lui al unui proprietar de vie din care se obtinea un vin modest, dar care avea un var de-al doilea, vasnic, plutonier, al carui fiu se insurase cu o tanara foarte frumoasa, divortata, al carei prim sot era fiul unui patriot sincer, care s-a priceput sa-si creasca una din fete in dorinta de a face avere si care a reusit sa se marite cu un vanator, care-l cunoscuse pe Rothschild si al carui frate, dupa ce-si schimbase de mai multe ori meseria, s-a casatorit si a avut o fata, al carei strabunic, pirpiriu, purta niste ochelari pe care-i primise de la un var.al lui, cumnatul unui portughez, fiu natural al unui morar, nu prea sarac, al carui frate de lapte luase de nevasta pe fiica unui fost medic de tara, el insusi frate de lapte cu fiul unui laptar, la randul lui fiul natural al unui alt medic de tara, insurat de trei ori la rand, a carui a treia sotie . (Eugen Ionescu, Teatru)

6. Pied Piping and Preposition Stranding

If you go back to our discussion in 2, regarding the mechanism that licenses the formation of relative clauses, you will remember that a relative clause such as that in

She was the woman [who everybody listened to]

(Ea era cea care pe care o ascultau toti.)

appeared as a result of movement:

a. She was a woman. Everybody listened to that woman.

b. She was the woman_i who_i everybody listened to______ .

c. She was the woman_i who_i everybody listened to t_i.

The phenomenon by means of which the relativized prepositional phrase is moved in clause initial position but leaves its preposition behind is called Preposition stranding: the preposition has been stranded at the end of the sentence.

The opposite phenomenon, by means of which the whole phrase is moved up front (preposition and all) bears the name of pied piping, where the wh-word is the pied piper that drags after it another element:

(76) She was the woman _i to whom_i everybody listened.

By extension, another case of pied piping is offered by the movement of the genitival phrase at the beginning of the relative clause:

(77)a. This is the book. I lost the cover of the book.

b. This is the book_i whose_i cover I lost t_i.

(Aceasta este cartea a carei coperta am pierdut-o.)

In this case the wh-word drags the constituent cover in clause initial position, acting again as a genuine pied piper.

The difference between (76) and (77), apart from the distinct syntactical functions the prepositional and the genitival phrase have, lies in the fact that in the case of (77) pied piping is obligatory. We couldn't say something like:

(78)* This is the book whose I lost cover.

Activity 8

Which of the following relative sentences can be reformulated by means of preposition stranding?

1.The first question with which Ambrose had to deal was that of the statue of victory in Rome. 2. The time at which he ate breakfast was inconvenient. 3. Thus they remained utterly obsessed with themselves and each other, and some natural healing process of which Dorina felt she ought to know. 4. In the interest of public decency, the safeguarding of which was actually not his task, he requested that the public be excluded. The problem of safe transportation, no easy answers to which could be offered, has been troubling them forever. 6. She was the very woman about whom I knew absolutely nothing. 7. This was the icepick with which one had seen her stab her husband to death. 8. She had fully realized how much her love for Austin cut her off from other people, as if she were being gradually cornered by a relentlessness of which he was the almost unconscious agent. 9. For the intense anxious sense of herself with which she was suddenly invested she was quite untrained. 10. Irene, for whom he had sacrificed his nights and days, he rarely saw now.

Activity 9

Identify the cases of Pied Piping in the following sentences:

1.His father's friends, whose interest he most sincerely shared, were now all gone. 2. This story, the unravelling of which had cost her many minutes of her life, was now complete. 3. She had lying in front of her a number of books and dictionaries most of which had been shipped from remote countries. 4. The only relatives she would have liked to put up with were her mother's sisters. His friends, no matter which, knew nothing of what he had been subjected to.

7 Key Concepts

Relative Clauses can be dependent and in that case they need an antecedent in the main clause, that is nominal phrase to which the relative clause introducer could send back. The relative clause introducer is also called the relativized constituent and it corefers with the antecedent in the main clause.

Dependent relative clause (so called because they are dependent on their antecedent) can further be split into restrictive ones (that define and identify the antecedent) and non-restrictive ones (that offer additional information about the antecedent and have an appositive value). Both these types of relative clauses function as Attributes (appositive or not, as the case is).

Independent relative clauses are also called Free Relative Clauses because their antecedent is missing, has been deleted. They do not function as attributes, but as subjects or objects (in fact fulfilling almost all syntactical functions, including that of Indirect Object which only they can have).

The mechanism that lies at the basis of dependent (and independent) relative clauses is movement, as can be seen in those particular sentences exhibiting preposition stranding or pied piping.

Activity 10 Optional Exercises

Translate the following making use of the knowledge acquired about relative clauses

De douazeci de ani, din saraca urbe provinciala unde vegetau fara speranta, capitala le paruse  un pisc inaccesibil, spre care aveau drept sa nazuiasca numai cutezatorii cu glezna tare si plamanii largi.

Toate sfarseau. Ramanea un vis urat si lung de care si amintirea va fugi maine cutremurata.

Caci pentru toti patru copiii, cu toata deosebirea de varsta si fire, capitala era necunoscutul miraculos ( . ) unde fiecare va afla tot ce-i pofteste inima si tot ce i-a urzit, himeric, inchipuirea.

Nelu, al treilea frate in ordinea cronologica, inchipuia capitala ca un fabulos garaj de unde nu lipseste nici o marca de automobil din cele mai rarisime si ca o vasta arena sportiva, unde in fiecare zi se dezlantuie competitia intre doua echipe ( . ).

Pentru altii, pentru dumneata bunaoara, precat am inteles din cele ce-mi vorbeai adineauri, sunt vrednic de invidiat.

A venit la mine sa-mi ceara sa-i numesc un ginere director. I-am numit ginerele cum a vrut si unde a vrut, de altfel un biat bun! - si nu stia cum sa-mi multumeasca.

Nu-i greu sa-si  dea seama cat m-am scandalizat si ce tambalau am facut cand vazui cum te-au lasat toti sa mucezesti intr-o asemenea puturosenie de targ.

Vag isi amintea ca intr-adevar ( . ) fusese chemat sa dezlege o intamplare tulbure si ca in spiritul sau drept si-a sacrificat prietenul pentru adevar. Dar ce anume a fost si cum s-a terminat povestea nu mai stia si nici n-ar fi crezut vreodata ca exista cineva care sa mai pastreze o atat de fidela amintire. Fostul camarad ii aparu cu totul altfel de cum il socotise pana acum.

Esti proaspat sosit aici, nu-ti dai poate inca deplin seama de cate intrigi si de cate presiuni uzeaza politicianismul chiar in justitie.

Daca le convingea vreo insusire cat de mica, speram ca aveai sa faci dumneata ceea ce face un frate mai mare pentru unul mai mic. Imi spuneam ca nu se poate sa nu banuiesti in ce singuratate si deznadejde se afla un om tanar intr-un oras unde totul ii e dusmanos!

Tot ce-ai citit dumneata inca nu inseamna nimic! Sa-ti mai adaog si concluzia ultima, care nu figureaza nici in dezbaterile procesului, nici in searbada mea versiune, la care vad ca tot tragi mereu cu ochii. ( . ) Cat golim cestile astea de cafea, ti-o rezum la cateva cuvinte.

Ceea ce n-a facut presedintele de tribunal din Franta, cand il invitase pe Henri Rochefort sa ia in primire un sector electoral si sa se aleaga deputat, cu surle si cu tobe, a facut el.

(Cezar Petrescu - Calea Victoriei - slightly adapted)

- De altfel chiar si idealuri de felul acesta ma straduiesc sa nu-mi mai fac pentru ca am observat ca mi se indeplinesc si nu pot alege acum care dintre ele merge in sensul vietii mele adevarate si care nu, inca nestiind care este adevarata mea viata.

Voi incerca sa-mi explic de ce la inceput mi s-a parut ca ai ochii verzi si de ce astazi, pana mai adineauri, ochii tai au fost cenusii.

Avea acum un fel de vertij, din care cauza pe Dora, desi atat de aproape, o vedea ca de la o mare distanta.

In spatele lor, pe strada Icoanei, tramvaiul venea cu duduit de avalansa si batai de clopote trase furios de o perdea rosie si galbena, de fier, intre ele si strazile si casele din urma-le, dinspre Maria Rosetti, din directia careia apoi, de unde venea si Marta, aparura, izvorande mereu insa tare indepartate, cu sclipiri abia vizibile, roiuri de fetite.

- E foarte frumos ce-mi spui, zise ea cu ochii mari, pierduti intr-o directie vaga.

Nici nu indraznesc sa ma gandesc la banuiala care ma incearca. Dar nu vezi? Mai intai ideea ca a ramas sarac, apoi ca trebuie sa lichideze tot si sa plece si acum ca e bolnav cand de fapt cu totii stim ca este santos. Nu ti se pare bizar la el care pana acum a fost un barbat atat de energic, optimist si cumpanit?

(Radu Petrescu - Matei Iliescu)